Há 392 anos um livro de Galileu acabou com a teoria geocêntrica...

  

Diálogo sobre os dois principais sistemas do mundo (no original em italiano Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) é um livro, publicado a 22 de fevereiro de 1632 e escrito por Galileu Galilei. Foi uma obra marcante da Revolução científica. Nele, Galileu utiliza três personagens, Salviati, Simplício e Sagredo, que debatem sobre Mecânica. O Diálogo é uma obra de combate, cujo objetivo era o de fazer rever o édito de 1616 da Inquisição romana que proibia o livro De revolutionibus, de Copérnico. Ao afirmar assim o caráter planetário da Terra, Galileu destrói os fundamentos antropocêntricos da visão tradicionalista cristã que defendia o geocentrismo. E, de facto, será condenado, em 1633, por esta obra, que inaugura a ciência moderna e redesenha o mapa da cultura ocidental, mostrar que a teoria heliocêntrica era verdadeira.

   

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Giordano Bruno foi executado há 424 anos...

 

Giordano Bruno (Nola, Reino de Nápoles, 1548 - Roma, Campo de Fiori, 17 de fevereiro de 1600) foi um teólogo, filósofo, escritor e ex-frade dominicano italiano, condenado à morte na fogueira pela Inquisição romana (Congregação da Sacra, Romana e Universal Inquisição do Santo Ofício) por heresia ao defender erros teológicos, mas não pela defesa do heliocentrismo de Copérnico. É também referido como Bruno de Nola ou Nolano.

        

  (...)

    

Prisão, julgamento e execução

Em Roma, o julgamento de Bruno durou oito anos, durante os quais ele foi preso, por último, na Torre de Nola. Alguns documentos importantes sobre o julgamento estão perdidos, mas outros foram preservados e entre eles um resumo do processo, que foi redescoberto em 1999. As numerosas acusações contra Bruno, com base em alguns de seus livros, bem como em relatos de testemunhas, incluíam blasfémia, conduta imoral e heresia em matéria de teologia dogmática e envolvia algumas das doutrinas básicas da sua filosofia e cosmologia. Luigi Firpo lista estas acusações feitas contra Bruno pela Inquisição Romana:

• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica e contestar os seus ministros;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre a Trindade, a divindade de Cristo e a encarnação;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre Jesus como Cristo;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre a virgindade de Maria, mãe de Jesus;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica tanto sobre a transubstanciação quanto a Missa;
• reivindicar a existência de uma pluralidade de mundos e suas eternidades;
• acreditar em metempsicose e na transmigração da alma humana em brutos;
• envolvimento com magia e adivinhação.

  

Giovanni Mocenigo (1558-1623), membro de um das mais ilustres famílias venezianas, encontrou Bruno em Frankfurt em 1590 e convidou-o para ir a Veneza, a pretexto de lhe ensinar mnemotécnica, a arte de desenvolver a memória, em que Bruno era perito. Segundo Will Durant Bruno estava havia muitos anos na lista dos procurados pela Inquisição, ansiosa por prendê-lo por suas doutrinas subversivas, mas Veneza gozava da fama de proteger tais foragidos, e o filósofo sentiu-se encorajado a cruzar os Alpes e regressar. Como Mocenigo quisesse usar as artes da memória com fins comerciais, segundo alguns, ou esperasse obter de Bruno ensinamentos de ocultismo para aumentar seu poder, prejudicar os seus concorrentes e inimigos, segundo outros, Bruno negou-se a ensiná-lo. Segundo Durant, Mocenigo, católico piedoso, assustava-se com "as heresias que o loquaz e incauto filósofo lhe expunha", e perguntou a seu confessor se devia denunciar Bruno à Inquisição. O sacerdote recomendou-lhe esperar e reunir provas, no que Mocenigo assentiu; mas quando Bruno anunciou o seu desejo de regressar a Frankfurt, o nobre denunciou-o ao Santo Ofício. Mocenigo trancou-o num quarto e chamou os agentes da Inquisição para o levarem preso, acusado de heresia. Bruno foi transferido para o cárcere do Santo Ofício de San Domenico de Castello, no dia 23 de maio de 1592.

No último interrogatório pela Inquisição do Santo Ofício, não abjurou e, no dia 8 de fevereiro de 1600, foi condenado à morte na fogueira. Obrigado a ouvir a sentença ajoelhado, Giordano Bruno teria respondido com um desafio: Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam ("Talvez sintam maior temor ao pronunciar esta sentença do que eu ao ouvi-la").

A execução de sua sentença ocorreu no dia 17 de fevereiro de 1600. Na ocasião teve a voz calada por um objeto de madeira posto na sua boca.

     

Monumento erguido, em 1889, por maçons italianos, no local onde Giordano Bruno foi executado

     

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Kepler morreu há 393 anos

Johannes Kepler (Weil der Stadt, 27 de dezembro de 1571 - Ratisbona, 15 de novembro de 1630) foi um astrónomo e matemático alemão, considerado figura-chave da revolução científica do século XVII. É mais conhecido por ter formulado as três leis fundamentais da mecânica celeste, conhecidas como Leis de Kepler, codificadas por astrónomos posteriores com base nas suas obras Astronomia Nova, Harmonices Mundi, e Epítome da Astronomia de Copérnico. Essas obras também forneceram uma das bases para a teoria da gravitação universal de Isaac Newton.

   

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Tycho Brahe morreu há 422 anos

            

Tycho Brahe (Skåne, Dinamarca, 14 de dezembro de 1546 - Praga, 24 de outubro de 1601) nascido Tyge Ottesen Brahe, foi um astrónomo dinamarquês. Teve um observatório chamado Uranienborg na ilha de Ven, no Öresund, entre a Dinamarca e a Suécia.

Tycho esteve ao serviço de Frederico II da Dinamarca e, mais tarde, do imperador Rodolfo II da Germânia, tendo sido um dos representantes mais prestigiosos da ciência nova - a ciência renascentista, que abrira uma brecha no sólido edifício construído na Idade Média, baseado na síntese da tradição bíblica e da ciência de Aristóteles. Continuando o trabalho iniciado por Copérnico, foi acolhido pelos sábios ocidentais com alguma relutância. Estudou detalhadamente as fases da lua e compilou muitos dados que serviriam, mais tarde, para Johannes Kepler descobrir uma harmonia celestial existente no movimento dos planetas, padrão esse conhecido como leis de Kepler.

A adesão de Tycho à ciência nova levou-o a abandonar a tradição ptolomaica, a fim de chegar a novas conclusões pela observação direta. Baseando-se nesta, construiu um sistema no qual, sem pretender descobrir os mistérios do cosmos, chega a uma síntese eclética entre os sistemas que poderíamos chamar de tradicionais e o de Copérnico.

Tycho foi um astrónomo observacional da era que precedeu a invenção do telescópio e as suas observações da posição das estrelas e dos planetas alcançaram uma precisão sem paralelo para a sua época. Após a sua morte, os seus registos dos movimentos de Marte permitiram a Johannes Kepler descobrir as leis dos movimentos dos planetas, que deram suporte à teoria heliocêntrica de Copérnico. Tycho não defendia o sistema de Copérnico mas propôs um sistema em que os planetas giram à volta do Sol e este orbitava em torno da Terra.

Em 1599, por discordar do novo rei do seu país, mudou-se para Praga e construiu um novo observatório, onde trabalhou, até morrer, em 1601.

        

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A Inquisição condenou Galileu há 390 anos (e, no entanto, move-se...)

Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

    

Galileo Galilei (Pisa, 15 February 1564 – Arcetri, 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science" and "the Father of Modern Science".

His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.

Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could be supported as only a possibility, not an established fact. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.

   

(...)

Controversy over heliocentrism

Biblical references Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place."
Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. He believed that the writers of the Scripture merely wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, from that vantage point that the sun does rise and set. Another way to put this is that the writers would have been writing from a phenomenological point of view, or style. So Galileo claimed that science did not contradict Scripture, as Scripture was discussing a different kind of "movement" of the earth, and not rotations.
By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Acting on instructions from the Pope before the decree was issued, Cardinal Bellarmine informed Galileo that it was forthcoming, that the ideas it condemned could not be "defended or held", and ordered him to abandon them. Galileo promised to obey. Bellarmine's instruction did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a mathematical fiction but was dangerously ambiguous as to whether he could treat it as a physical possibility. For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.
Dava Sobel explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defence of his book.
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings.
In September 1632, Galileo was ordered to come to Rome to stand trial. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat. The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on June 22. It was in three essential parts:

• Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.
• He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life.
• His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.

According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves (italian: Eppur si muove) but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.
After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.

   

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Copérnico faleceu há 480 anos

    

Nicolau Copérnico (Toruń, 19 de fevereiro de 1473 - Frauenburgo, 24 de maio de 1543) foi um astrónomo e matemático polaco que desenvolveu a teoria heliocêntrica do Sistema Solar. Foi também cónego da Igreja Católica, governador e administrador, jurista, astrólogo e médico.

A sua teoria do heliocentrismo, que colocou o Sol como o centro do Sistema Solar, contrariando a então vigente Teoria Geocêntrica (que considerava a Terra como o centro do Universo), é considerada como uma das mais importantes hipóteses científicas de todos os tempos, tendo constituído o ponto de partida da astronomia moderna.

    

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Um livro de Galileu assassinou a teoria geocêntrica há 391 anos

  

Diálogo sobre os dois principais sistemas do mundo (no original em italiano Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) é um livro, publicado a 22 de fevereiro de 1632 e escrito por Galileu Galilei. Foi uma obra marcante da Revolução científica. Nele, Galileu utiliza três personagens, Salviati, Simplício e Sagredo, que debatem sobre Mecânica. O Diálogo é uma obra de combate, cujo objetivo era o de fazer rever o édito de 1616 da Inquisição romana que proibia o livro De revolutionibus, de Copérnico. Ao afirmar assim o caráter planetário da Terra, Galileu destrói os fundamentos antropocêntricos da visão tradicionalista cristã que defendia o geocentrismo. E, de facto, será condenado, em 1633, por esta obra, que inaugura a ciência moderna e redesenha o mapa da cultura ocidental, mostrar que a teoria heliocêntrica era verdadeira.

   

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Giordano Bruno foi executado há 423 anos

       
Giordano Bruno (Nola, Reino de Nápoles, 1548 - Roma, Campo de Fiori, 17 de fevereiro de 1600) foi um teólogo, filósofo, escritor e ex-frade dominicano italiano, condenado à morte na fogueira pela Inquisição romana (Congregação da Sacra, Romana e Universal Inquisição do Santo Ofício) por heresia ao defender erros teológicos, mas não pela defesa do heliocentrismo de Copérnico. É também referido como Bruno de Nola ou Nolano.

        

  (...)

    

Prisão, julgamento e execução

Em Roma, o julgamento de Bruno durou oito anos, durante os quais ele foi preso, por último, na Torre de Nona. Alguns documentos importantes sobre o julgamento estão perdidos, mas outros foram preservados e entre eles um resumo do processo, que foi redescoberto em 1999. As numerosas acusações contra Bruno, com base em alguns de seus livros, bem como em relatos de testemunhas, incluíam blasfémia, conduta imoral e heresia em matéria de teologia dogmática e envolvia algumas das doutrinas básicas da sua filosofia e cosmologia. Luigi Firpo lista estas acusações feitas contra Bruno pela Inquisição Romana:

• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica e contestar os seus ministros;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre a Trindade, a divindade de Cristo e a encarnação;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre Jesus como Cristo;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre a virgindade de Maria, mãe de Jesus;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica tanto sobre a transubstanciação quanto a Missa;
• reivindicar a existência de uma pluralidade de mundos e suas eternidades;
• acreditar em metempsicose e na transmigração da alma humana em brutos;
• envolvimento com magia e adivinhação.

  

Giovanni Mocenigo (1558-1623), membro de um das mais ilustres famílias venezianas, encontrou Bruno em Frankfurt em 1590 e convidou-o para ir a Veneza, a pretexto de lhe ensinar mnemotécnica, a arte de desenvolver a memória, em que Bruno era perito. Segundo Will Durant Bruno estava havia muitos anos na lista dos procurados pela Inquisição, ansiosa por prendê-lo por suas doutrinas subversivas, mas Veneza gozava da fama de proteger tais foragidos, e o filósofo sentiu-se encorajado a cruzar os Alpes e regressar. Como Mocenigo quisesse usar as artes da memória com fins comerciais, segundo alguns, ou esperasse obter de Bruno ensinamentos de ocultismo para aumentar seu poder, prejudicar os seus concorrentes e inimigos, segundo outros, Bruno negou-se a ensiná-lo. Segundo Durant, Mocenigo, católico piedoso, assustava-se com "as heresias que o loquaz e incauto filósofo lhe expunha", e perguntou a seu confessor se devia denunciar Bruno à Inquisição. O sacerdote recomendou-lhe esperar e reunir provas, no que Mocenigo assentiu; mas quando Bruno anunciou seu desejo de regressar a Frankfurt, o nobre denunciou-o ao Santo Ofício. Mocenigo trancou-o num quarto e chamou os agentes da Inquisição para levarem-no preso, acusado de heresia. Bruno foi transferido para o cárcere do Santo Ofício de San Domenico de Castello, no dia 23 de maio de 1592.

No último interrogatório pela Inquisição do Santo Ofício, não abjurou e, no dia 8 de fevereiro de 1600, foi condenado à morte na fogueira. Obrigado a ouvir a sentença ajoelhado, Giordano Bruno teria respondido com um desafio: Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam ("Talvez sintam maior temor ao pronunciar esta sentença do que eu ao ouvi-la").

A execução de sua sentença ocorreu no dia 17 de fevereiro de 1600. Na ocasião teve a voz calada por um objeto de madeira posto na sua boca.

     

Monumento erguido, em 1889, por maçons italianos, no local onde Giordano Bruno foi executado

     

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Kepler morreu há 392 anos

   

Johannes Kepler (Weil der Stadt, 27 de dezembro de 1571 - Ratisbona, 15 de novembro de 1630) foi um astrónomo e matemático alemão, considerado figura-chave da revolução científica do século XVII. É mais conhecido por ter formulado as três leis fundamentais da mecânica celeste, conhecidas como Leis de Kepler, codificadas por astrónomos posteriores com base nas suas obras Astronomia Nova, Harmonices Mundi, e Epítome da Astronomia de Copérnico. Essas obras também forneceram uma das bases para a teoria da gravitação universal de Isaac Newton.

   

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O astrónomo Tycho Brahe morreu há 421 anos

         

Tycho Brahe (Skåne, Dinamarca, 14 de dezembro de 1546 - Praga, 24 de outubro de 1601) nascido Tyge Ottesen Brahe, foi um astrónomo dinamarquês. Teve um observatório chamado Uranienborg na ilha de Ven, no Öresund, entre a Dinamarca e a Suécia.

Tycho esteve ao serviço de Frederico II da Dinamarca e, mais tarde, do imperador Rodolfo II da Germânia, tendo sido um dos representantes mais prestigiosos da ciência nova - a ciência renascentista, que abrira uma brecha no sólido edifício construído na Idade Média, baseado na síntese da tradição bíblica e da ciência de Aristóteles. Continuando o trabalho iniciado por Copérnico, foi acolhido pelos sábios ocidentais com alguma relutância. Estudou detalhadamente as fases da lua e compilou muitos dados que serviriam, mais tarde, para Johannes Kepler descobrir uma harmonia celestial existente no movimento dos planetas, padrão esse conhecido como leis de Kepler.

A adesão de Tycho à ciência nova levou-o a abandonar a tradição ptolomaica, a fim de chegar a novas conclusões pela observação direta. Baseando-se nesta, construiu um sistema no qual, sem pretender descobrir os mistérios do cosmos, chega a uma síntese eclética entre os sistemas que poderíamos chamar de tradicionais e o de Copérnico.

Tycho foi um astrónomo observacional da era que precedeu a invenção do telescópio, e as suas observações da posição das estrelas e dos planetas alcançaram uma precisão sem paralelo para a sua época. Após a sua morte, os seus registos dos movimentos de Marte permitiram a Johannes Kepler descobrir as leis dos movimentos dos planetas, que deram suporte à teoria heliocêntrica de Copérnico. Tycho não defendia o sistema de Copérnico mas propôs um sistema em que os planetas giram à volta do Sol e este orbitava em torno da Terra.

Em 1599, por discordar do novo rei do seu país, mudou-se para Praga e construiu um novo observatório, onde trabalhou, até morrer, em 1601.

        

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A Inquisição condenou Galileu há 389 anos - e, no entanto, move-se...

Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

    

Galileo Galilei (Pisa, 15 February 1564 – Arcetri, 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science" and "the Father of Modern Science".

His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.

Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could be supported as only a possibility, not an established fact. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.

   

(...)

Controversy over heliocentrism

Biblical references Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place."
Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. He believed that the writers of the Scripture merely wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, from that vantage point that the sun does rise and set. Another way to put this is that the writers would have been writing from a phenomenological point of view, or style. So Galileo claimed that science did not contradict Scripture, as Scripture was discussing a different kind of "movement" of the earth, and not rotations.
By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Acting on instructions from the Pope before the decree was issued, Cardinal Bellarmine informed Galileo that it was forthcoming, that the ideas it condemned could not be "defended or held", and ordered him to abandon them. Galileo promised to obey. Bellarmine's instruction did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a mathematical fiction but was dangerously ambiguous as to whether he could treat it as a physical possibility. For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.
Dava Sobel explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defence of his book.
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings.
In September 1632, Galileo was ordered to come to Rome to stand trial. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat. The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on June 22. It was in three essential parts:

• Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.
• He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life.
• His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.

According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves (italian: Eppur si muove) but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.
After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.

   

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Copérnico faleceu há 479 anos

    

Nicolau Copérnico (Toruń, 19 de fevereiro de 1473 - Frauenburgo, 24 de maio de 1543) foi um astrónomo e matemático polaco que desenvolveu a teoria heliocêntrica do Sistema Solar. Foi também cónego da Igreja Católica, governador e administrador, jurista, astrólogo e médico.

A sua teoria do heliocentrismo, que colocou o Sol como o centro do Sistema Solar, contrariando a então vigente Teoria Geocêntrica (que considerava a Terra como o centro do Universo), é considerada como uma das mais importantes hipóteses científicas de todos os tempos, tendo constituído o ponto de partida da astronomia moderna.

    

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Um livro de Galileu acabou com a teoria geocêntrica há 390 anos

  

Diálogo sobre os dois principais sistemas do mundo (no original em italiano Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) é um livro, publicado a 22 de fevereiro de 1632 e escrito por Galileu Galilei. Foi uma obra marcante da Revolução científica. Nele, Galileu utiliza três personagens, Salviati, Simplício e Sagredo, que debatem sobre Mecânica. O Diálogo é uma obra de combate, cujo objetivol era o de fazer rever o édito de 1616 da Inquisição romana que proibia o livro De revolutionibus, de Copérnico. Ao afirmar assim o caráter planetário da Terra, Galileu destrói os fundamentos antropocêntricos da visão tradicionalista cristã que defendia o geocentrismo. E, de facto, será condenado, em 1633, por esta obra, que inaugura a ciência moderna e redesenha o mapa da cultura ocidental, mostrar que a teoria heliocêntrica era verdadeira.

   

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Giordano Bruno foi executado há 422 anos

       
Giordano Bruno (Nola, Reino de Nápoles, 1548 - Roma, Campo de Fiori, 17 de fevereiro de 1600) foi um teólogo, filósofo, escritor e ex-frade dominicano italiano, condenado à morte na fogueira pela Inquisição romana (Congregação da Sacra, Romana e Universal Inquisição do Santo Ofício) por heresia ao defender erros teológicos, mas não pela defesa do heliocentrismo de Copérnico. É também referido como Bruno de Nola ou Nolano.

        

  (...)

    

Prisão, julgamento e execução

Em Roma, o julgamento de Bruno durou oito anos, durante os quais ele foi preso, por último, na Torre de Nona. Alguns documentos importantes sobre o julgamento estão perdidos, mas outros foram preservados e entre eles um resumo do processo, que foi redescoberto em 1999. As numerosas acusações contra Bruno, com base em alguns de seus livros, bem como em relatos de testemunhas, incluíam blasfêmia, conduta imoral e heresia em matéria de teologia dogmática e envolvia algumas das doutrinas básicas da sua filosofia e cosmologia. Luigi Firpo lista estas acusações feitas contra Bruno pela Inquisição Romana:

• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica e contestar os seus ministros;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre a Trindade, a divindade de Cristo e a encarnação;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre Jesus como Cristo;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica sobre a virgindade de Maria, mãe de Jesus;
• sustentar opiniões contrárias à fé católica tanto sobre a transubstanciação quanto a Missa;
• reivindicar a existência de uma pluralidade de mundos e suas eternidades;
• acreditar em metempsicose e na transmigração da alma humana em brutos;
• envolvimento com magia e adivinhação.

  

Giovanni Mocenigo (1558-1623), membro de um das mais ilustres famílias venezianas, encontrou Bruno em Frankfurt em 1590 e convidou-o para ir a Veneza, a pretexto de lhe ensinar mnemotécnica, a arte de desenvolver a memória, em que Bruno era perito. Segundo Will Durant Bruno estava havia muitos anos na lista dos procurados pela Inquisição, ansiosa por prendê-lo por suas doutrinas subversivas, mas Veneza gozava da fama de proteger tais foragidos, e o filósofo sentiu-se encorajado a cruzar os Alpes e regressar. Como Mocenigo quisesse usar as artes da memória com fins comerciais, segundo alguns, ou esperasse obter de Bruno ensinamentos de ocultismo para aumentar seu poder, prejudicar os seus concorrentes e inimigos, segundo outros, Bruno negou-se a ensiná-lo. Segundo Durant, Mocenigo, católico piedoso, assustava-se com "as heresias que o loquaz e incauto filósofo lhe expunha", e perguntou a seu confessor se devia denunciar Bruno à Inquisição. O sacerdote recomendou-lhe esperar e reunir provas, no que Mocenigo assentiu; mas quando Bruno anunciou seu desejo de regressar a Frankfurt, o nobre denunciou-o ao Santo Ofício. Mocenigo trancou-o num quarto e chamou os agentes da Inquisição para levarem-no preso, acusado de heresia. Bruno foi transferido para o cárcere do Santo Ofício de San Domenico de Castello, no dia 23 de maio de 1592.

No último interrogatório pela Inquisição do Santo Ofício, não abjurou e, no dia 8 de fevereiro de 1600, foi condenado à morte na fogueira. Obrigado a ouvir a sentença ajoelhado, Giordano Bruno teria respondido com um desafio: Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam ("Talvez sintam maior temor ao pronunciar esta sentença do que eu ao ouvi-la").

A execução de sua sentença ocorreu no dia 17 de fevereiro de 1600. Na ocasião teve a voz calada por um objeto de madeira posto na sua boca.

     

Monumento erguido, em 1889, por maçons italianos, no local onde Giordano Bruno foi executado

     

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Kepler morreu há 391 anos

    

Johannes Kepler (Weil der Stadt, 27 de dezembro de 1571 - Ratisbona, 15 de novembro de 1630) foi um astrónomo e matemático alemão, considerado figura-chave da revolução científica do século XVII. É mais conhecido por ter formulado as três leis fundamentais da mecânica celeste, conhecidas como Leis de Kepler, codificadas por astrónomos posteriores com base nas suas obras Astronomia Nova, Harmonices Mundi, e Epítome da Astronomia de Copérnico. Essas obras também forneceram uma das bases para a teoria da gravitação universal de Isaac Newton.

   

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Tycho Brahe morreu há 420 anos

      

Tycho Brahe (Skåne, Dinamarca, 14 de dezembro de 1546 - Praga, 24 de outubro de 1601) nascido Tyge Ottesen Brahe, foi um astrónomo dinamarquês. Teve um observatório chamado Uranienborg na ilha de Ven, no Öresund, entre a Dinamarca e a Suécia.

Tycho esteve ao serviço de Frederico II da Dinamarca e, mais tarde, do imperador Rodolfo II da Germânia, tendo sido um dos representantes mais prestigiosos da ciência nova - a ciência renascentista, que abrira uma brecha no sólido edifício construído na Idade Média, baseado na síntese da tradição bíblica e da ciência de Aristóteles. Continuando o trabalho iniciado por Copérnico, foi acolhido pelos sábios ocidentais com alguma relutância. Estudou detalhadamente as fases da lua e compilou muitos dados que serviriam, mais tarde, para Johannes Kepler descobrir uma harmonia celestial existente no movimento dos planetas, padrão esse conhecido como leis de Kepler.

A adesão de Tycho à ciência nova levou-o a abandonar a tradição ptolomaica, a fim de chegar a novas conclusões pela observação directa. Baseando-se nesta, construiu um sistema no qual, sem pretender descobrir os mistérios do cosmos, chega a uma síntese eclética entre os sistemas que poderíamos chamar de tradicionais e o de Copérnico.

Tycho foi um astrónomo observacional da era que precedeu a invenção do telescópio, e as suas observações da posição das estrelas e dos planetas alcançaram uma precisão sem paralelo para a sua época. Após a sua morte, os seus registos dos movimentos de Marte permitiram a Johannes Kepler descobrir as leis dos movimentos dos planetas, que deram suporte à teoria heliocêntrica de Copérnico. Tycho não defendia o sistema de Copérnico mas propôs um sistema em que os planetas giram à volta do Sol e este orbitava em torno da Terra.

Em 1599, por discordar do novo rei do seu país, mudou-se para Praga e construiu um novo observatório, onde trabalhou, até morrer, em 1601.

    

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Eppur si muove - a Inquisição condenou Galileu há 388 anos

  

Galileo Galilei (Pisa, 15 February 1564 – Arcetri, 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science" and "the Father of Modern Science".

His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.

Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could be supported as only a possibility, not an established fact. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.

   

(...)
  

Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

   

Controversy over heliocentrism

Biblical references Psalm 93:1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same manner, Psalm 104:5 says, "the Lord set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place."
Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. He believed that the writers of the Scripture merely wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, from that vantage point that the sun does rise and set. Another way to put this is that the writers would have been writing from a phenomenological point of view, or style. So Galileo claimed that science did not contradict Scripture, as Scripture was discussing a different kind of "movement" of the earth, and not rotations.
By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In the end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Acting on instructions from the Pope before the decree was issued, Cardinal Bellarmine informed Galileo that it was forthcoming, that the ideas it condemned could not be "defended or held", and ordered him to abandon them. Galileo promised to obey. Bellarmine's instruction did not prohibit Galileo from discussing heliocentrism as a mathematical fiction but was dangerously ambiguous as to whether he could treat it as a physical possibility. For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.
Dava Sobel explains that during this time, Urban had begun to fall more and more under the influence of court intrigue and problems of state. His friendship with Galileo began to take second place to his feelings of persecution and fear for his own life. At this low point in Urban's life, the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Coming on top of the recent claim by the then Spanish cardinal that Urban was soft on defending the church, he reacted out of anger and fear. This situation did not bode well for Galileo's defence of his book.
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings.
In September 1632, Galileo was ordered to come to Rome to stand trial. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat. The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on June 22. It was in three essential parts:

• Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.
• He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life.
• His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.

According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves (italian: Eppur si muove) but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.
After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.

   

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